The object-oriented features of D all come from classes. The class hierarchy has as its root the class Object. Object defines a minimum level of functionality that each derived class has, and a default implementation for that functionality.
Classes are programmer defined types. Support for classes are what make D an object oriented language, giving it encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. D classes support the single inheritance paradigm, extended by adding support for interfaces. Class objects are instantiated by reference only.
A class can be exported, which means its name and all its non-private members are exposed externally to the DLL or EXE.
A class declaration is defined:
ClassDeclaration: class Identifier ; class Identifier BaseClassListopt AggregateBody ClassTemplateDeclaration BaseClassList: : SuperClass : SuperClass , Interfaces : Interfaces SuperClass: BasicType Interfaces: Interface Interface , Interfaces Interface: BasicType
Classes consist of:
A class is defined:
class Foo
{
... members ...
}
Note that there is no trailing ; after the closing } of the class definition. It is also not possible to declare a variable var like:
class Foo { } var;
Instead:
class Foo { }
Foo var;
Access to class members is controlled using visibility attributes. The default visibility attribute is public.
Class members are always accessed with the . operator.
Members of a base class can be accessed by prepending the name of the base class followed by a dot:
class A { int a; int a2;} class B : A { int a; } void foo(B b) { b.a = 3; // accesses field B.a b.a2 = 4; // accesses field A.a2 b.A.a = 5; // accesses field A.a }
The D compiler is free to rearrange the order of fields in a class to optimally pack them in an implementation-defined manner. Consider the fields much like the local variables in a function - the compiler assigns some to registers and shuffles others around all to get the optimal stack frame layout. This frees the code designer to organize the fields in a manner that makes the code more readable rather than being forced to organize it according to machine optimization rules. Explicit control of field layout is provided by struct/union types, not classes.
Fields of extern(Objective-C) classes have a dynamic offset. That means that the base class can change (add or remove instance variables) without the subclasses needing to recompile or relink.
The .offsetof property gives the offset in bytes of the field from the beginning of the class instantiation. .offsetof is not available for fields of extern(Objective-C) classes due to their fields having a dynamic offset. .offsetof can only be applied to expressions which produce the type of the field itself, not the class type:
class Foo { int x; } ... void test(Foo foo) { size_t o; o = Foo.x.offsetof; // error, Foo.x needs a 'this' reference o = foo.x.offsetof; // ok }
The .tupleof property is an expression sequence of all the fields in the class, excluding the hidden fields and the fields in the base class. .tupleof is not available for extern(Objective-C) classes due to their fields having a dynamic offset.
class Foo { int x; long y; } void test(Foo foo) { import std.stdio; static assert(typeof(foo.tupleof).stringof == `(int, long)`); foo.tupleof[0] = 1; // set foo.x to 1 foo.tupleof[1] = 2; // set foo.y to 2 foreach (x; foo.tupleof) write(x); // prints 12 }
The properties .__vptr and .__monitor give access to the class object's vtbl[] and monitor, respectively, but should not be used in user code.
Non-static member functions or static member functions with Objective-C linkage have an extra hidden parameter called this through which the class object's other members can be accessed.
Member functions with the Objective-C linkage has an additional hidden, anonymous, parameter which is the selector the function was called with.
Non-static member functions can have, in addition to the usual FunctionAttributes, the attributes const, immutable, shared, or inout. These attributes apply to the hidden this parameter.
Static member functions with the Objective-C linkage are placed in the hidden nested metaclass as non-static member functions.
class C { int a; const void foo() { a = 3; // error, 'this' is const } void foo() immutable { a = 3; // error, 'this' is immutable } }
All member functions of synchronized classes are synchronized. A static member function is synchronized on the classinfo object for the class, which means that one monitor is used for all static member functions for that synchronized class. For non-static functions of a synchronized class, the monitor used is part of the class object. For example:
synchronized class Foo { void bar() { ...statements... } }
is equivalent to (as far as the monitors go):
synchronized class Foo { void bar() { synchronized (this) { ...statements... } } }
Member functions of non-synchronized classes can be individually marked as synchronized.
class Foo { synchronized void foo() { } // foo is synchronized }
Member fields of a synchronized class cannot be public:
synchronized class Foo { int foo; // disallowed: public field } synchronized class Bar { private int bar; // ok }
The synchronized attribute can only be applied to classes, structs cannot be marked to be synchronized.
Constructor: this Parameters MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; this Parameters MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBody ConstructorTemplate
Fields are by default initialized to the default initializer for their type (usually 0 for integer types and NAN for floating point types). If the field declaration has an optional Initializer that will be used instead of the default.
class Abc { int a; // default initializer for a is 0 long b = 7; // default initializer for b is 7 float f; // default initializer for f is NAN }
The Initializer is evaluated at compile time.
This initialization is done before any constructors are called.
Constructors are defined with a function name of this and having no return value:
class Foo { this(int x) // declare constructor for Foo { ... } this() { ... } }
Base class construction is done by calling the base class constructor by the name super:
class A { this(int y) { } } class B : A { int j; this() { ... super(3); // call base constructor A.this(3) ... } }
Constructors can call other constructors for the same class in order to share common initializations (this is called a delegating constructor):
class C { int j; this() { ... } this(int i) { this(); // delegating constructor call j = i; } }
If no call to constructors via this or super appear in a constructor, and the base class has a constructor, a call to super() is inserted at the beginning of the constructor.
If there is no constructor for a class, but there is a constructor for the base class, a default constructor is implicitly generated with the form:
this() { }
The following restrictions apply to class construction:
this() { this(1); } this(int i) { this(); } // illegal, cyclic constructor calls
this() { a || super(); } // illegal this() { (a) ? this(1) : super(); } // ok this() { for (...) { super(); // illegal, inside loop } }
Instances of class objects are created with a NewExpression:
A a = new A(3);
The following steps happen:
Constructors can have one of these member function attributes: const, immutable, and shared. Construction of qualified objects will then be restricted to the implemented qualified constructors.
class C { this(); // non-shared mutable constructor } // create mutable object C m = new C(); // create const object using by mutable constructor const C c2 = new const C(); // a mutable constructor cannot create an immutable object // immutable C i = new immutable C(); // a mutable constructor cannot create a shared object // shared C s = new shared C();
Constructors can be overloaded with different attributes.
class C { this(); // non-shared mutable constructor this() shared; // shared mutable constructor this() immutable; // immutable constructor } C m = new C(); shared s = new shared C(); immutable i = new immutable C();
If the constructor can create a unique object (e.g. if it is pure), the object can be implicitly convertible to any qualifiers.
class C { this() pure; // Based on the definition, this creates a mutable object. But the // created object cannot contain any mutable global data. // Therefore the created object is unique. this(int[] arr) immutable pure; // Based on the definition, this creates an immutable object. But // the argument int[] never appears in the created object so it // isn't implicitly convertible to immutable. Also, it cannot store // any immutable global data. // Therefore the created object is unique. } immutable i = new immutable C(); // this() pure is called shared s = new shared C(); // this() pure is called C m = new C([1,2,3]); // this(int[]) immutable pure is called
In a constructor body, the first instance of field assignment is its initialization.
class C { int num; this() { num = 1; // initialization num = 2; // assignment } }
If the field type has an opAssign method, it will not be used for initialization.
struct A { this(int n) {} void opAssign(A rhs) {} } class C { A val; this() { val = A(1); // val is initialized to the value of A(1) val = A(2); // rewritten to val.opAssign(A(2)) } }
If the field type is not mutable, multiple initialization will be rejected.
class C { immutable int num; this() { num = 1; // OK num = 2; // Error: multiple field initialization } }
If the field is initialized on one path, it must be initialized on all paths.
class C { immutable int num; immutable int ber; this(int i) { if (i) num = 3; // initialization else num = 4; // initialization } this(long j) { j ? (num = 3) : (num = 4); // ok j || (ber = 3); // error, intialized on only one path j && (ber = 3); // error, intialized on only one path } }
A field initialization may not appear in a loop or after a label.
class C { immutable int num; immutable string str; this() { foreach (i; 0..2) { num = 1; // Error: field initialization not allowed in loops } size_t i = 0; Label: str = "hello"; // Error: field initialization not allowed after labels if (i++ < 2) goto Label; } }
If a field's type has disabled default construction, then it must be initialized in the constructor.
struct S { int y; @disable this(); } class C { S s; this(S t) { s = t; } // ok this(int i) { this(); } // ok this() { } // error, s not initialized }
Destructor: ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBody
The garbage collector calls the destructor function when the object is deleted. The syntax is:
class Foo { ~this() // destructor for Foo { } }
There can be only one destructor per class, the destructor does not have any parameters, and has no attributes. It is always virtual.
The destructor is expected to release any resources held by the object.
The program can explicitly inform the garbage collector that an object is no longer referred to with destroy, and then the garbage collector calls the destructor immediately. The destructor is guaranteed to never be called twice.
The destructor for the super class automatically gets called when the destructor ends. There is no way to call the super destructor explicitly.
The garbage collector is not guaranteed to run the destructor for all unreferenced objects. Furthermore, the order in which the garbage collector calls destructors for unreferenced objects is not specified. This means that when the garbage collector calls a destructor for an object of a class that has members which are references to garbage collected objects, those references may no longer be valid. This means that destructors cannot reference sub objects. This rule does not apply to auto objects or objects destructed with destroy, as the destructor is not being run by the garbage collector, meaning all references are valid.
Objects referenced from the data segment never get collected by the gc.
StaticConstructor: static this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; static this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBody
A static constructor is a function that performs initializations of thread local data before the main() function gets control for the main thread, and upon thread startup.
Static constructors are used to initialize static class members with values that cannot be computed at compile time.
Static constructors in other languages are built implicitly by using member initializers that can't be computed at compile time. The trouble with this stems from not having good control over exactly when the code is executed, for example:
class Foo { static int a = b + 1; static int b = a * 2; }What values do a and b end up with, what order are the initializations executed in, what are the values of a and b before the initializations are run, is this a compile error, or is this a runtime error? Additional confusion comes from it not being obvious if an initializer is static or dynamic.
D makes this simple. All member initializations must be determinable by the compiler at compile time, hence there is no order-of-evaluation dependency for member initializations, and it is not possible to read a value that has not been initialized. Dynamic initialization is performed by a static constructor, defined with a special syntax static this().
class Foo { static int a; // default initialized to 0 static int b = 1; static int c = b + a; // error, not a constant initializer static this() // static constructor { a = b + 1; // a is set to 2 b = a * 2; // b is set to 4 } }
If main() or the thread returns normally, (does not throw an exception), the static destructor is added to the list of functions to be called on thread termination.
Static constructors have empty parameter lists.
Static constructors within a module are executed in the lexical order in which they appear. All the static constructors for modules that are directly or indirectly imported are executed before the static constructors for the importer.
The static in the static constructor declaration is not an attribute, it must appear immediately before the this:
class Foo { static this() { ... } // a static constructor static private this() { ... } // not a static constructor static { this() { ... } // not a static constructor } static: this() { ... } // not a static constructor }
StaticDestructor: static ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; static ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBodyA static destructor is defined as a special static function with the syntax static ~this().
class Foo { static ~this() // static destructor { } }
A static destructor gets called on thread termination, but only if the static constructor completed successfully. Static destructors have empty parameter lists. Static destructors get called in the reverse order that the static constructors were called in.
The static in the static destructor declaration is not an attribute, it must appear immediately before the ~this:
class Foo { static ~this() { ... } // a static destructor static private ~this() { ... } // not a static destructor static { ~this() { ... } // not a static destructor } static: ~this() { ... } // not a static destructor }
SharedStaticConstructor: shared static this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; shared static this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBody
Shared static constructors are executed before any StaticConstructors, and are intended for initializing any shared global data.
SharedStaticDestructor: shared static ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt ; shared static ~ this ( ) MemberFunctionAttributesopt FunctionBody
Shared static destructors are executed at program termination in the reverse order that SharedStaticConstructors were executed.
ClassInvariant: invariant ( ) BlockStatement invariant BlockStatement invariant ( AssertArguments ) ;
ClassInvariant specify the relationships among the members of a class instance. Those relationships must hold for any interactions with the instance from its public interface.
The invariant is in the form of a const member function. The invariant is defined to hold if all the AssertExpressions within the invariant that are executed succeed.
If the invariant does not hold, then the program enters an invalid state.
Any class invariants for base classes are applied before the class invariant for the derived class.
There may be multiple invariants in a class. They are applied in lexical order.
ClassInvariants must hold at the exit of the class constructor (if any), at the entry of the class destructor (if any).
ClassInvariants must hold at the entry and exit of all public or exported non-static member functions. The order of application of invariants is:
The invariant need not hold if the class instance is implicitly constructed using the default .init value.
class Date { this(int d, int h) { day = d; // days are 1..31 hour = h; // hours are 0..23 } invariant { assert(1 <= day && day <= 31); assert(0 <= hour && hour < 24); } private: int day; int hour; }
Public or exported non-static member functions cannot be called from within an invariant.
class Foo { public void f() { } private void g() { } invariant { f(); // error, cannot call public member function from invariant g(); // ok, g() is not public } }
Allocator: new Parameters ; new Parameters FunctionBody
A class member function of the form:
new(uint size) { ... }is called a class allocator. The class allocator can have any number of parameters, provided the first one is of type uint. Any number can be defined for a class, the correct one is determined by the usual function overloading rules. When a new expression:
new Foo;
is executed, and Foo is a class that has
an allocator, the allocator is called with the first argument
set to the size in bytes of the memory to be allocated for the
instance.
The allocator must allocate the memory and return it as a
void*.
If the allocator fails, it must not return a null, but
must throw an exception.
If there is more than one parameter to the allocator, the
additional arguments are specified within parentheses after
the new in the NewExpression:
class Foo { this(string a) { ... } new(uint size, int x, int y) { ... } } ... new(1,2) Foo(a); // calls new(Foo.sizeof,1,2)
Derived classes inherit any allocator from their base class, if one is not specified.
The class allocator is not called if the instance is created on the stack.
See also Explicit Class Instance Allocation.
class Foo { int x; this() { x = 1; } } Foo foo = new Foo; destroy(foo); assert(foo.x == int.init); // object is still accessible
Deallocator: delete Parameters ; delete Parameters FunctionBody
A class member function of the form:
delete(void *p) { ... }is called a class deallocator. The deallocator must have exactly one parameter of type void*. Only one can be specified for a class. When a delete expression:
delete f;
is executed, and f is a reference to a class instance that has a deallocator,
the deallocator is called with a pointer to the class instance after the
destructor (if any) for the class is called. It is the responsibility of the
deallocator to free the memory.
Derived classes inherit any deallocator from their base class, if one is not specified.
The class allocator is not called if the instance is created on the stack.
See also Explicit Class Instance Allocation.
AliasThis: alias Identifier this ;
An AliasThis declaration names a member to subtype. The Identifier names that member.
A class or struct can be implicitly converted to the AliasThis member.
struct S { int x; alias x this; } int foo(int i) { return i * 2; } void test() { S s; s.x = 7; int i = -s; // i == -7 i = s + 8; // i == 15 i = s + s; // i == 14 i = 9 + s; // i == 16 i = foo(s); // implicit conversion to int }
If the member is a class or struct, undefined lookups will be forwarded to the AliasThis member.
struct Foo { int baz = 4; int get() { return 7; } } class Bar { Foo foo; alias foo this; } void test() { auto bar = new Bar; int i = bar.baz; // i == 4 i = bar.get(); // i == 7 }
If the Identifier refers to a property member function with no parameters, conversions and undefined lookups are forwarded to the return value of the function.
struct S { int x; @property int get() { return x * 2; } alias get this; } void test() { S s; s.x = 2; int i = s; // i == 4 }
If an aggregate declaration defines an opCmp or opEquals method, it will take precedence to that of the aliased this member. Note that, unlike an opCmp method, an opEquals method is implicitly defined for a struct declaration if a user defined one isn't provided; this means that if the aliased this member opEquals is preferred it should be explicitly defined:
struct S { int a; bool opEquals(S rhs) const { return this.a == rhs.a; } } struct T { int b; S s; alias s this; } struct U { int a; bool opCmp(U rhs) const { return this.a < rhs.a; } } struct V { int b; U u; alias u this; } void main() { S s1, s2; T t1, t2; U u1, u2; V v1, v2; assert(s1 == s2); // calls S.opEquals assert(t1 == t2); // calls compiler generated T.opEquals that implements member-wise equality assert(!(u1 < u2)); // calls U.opCmp assert(!(v1 < v2)); // calls U.opCmp because V does not define an opCmp method // so the alias this of v1 is employed; U.opCmp expects a // paramter of type U, so alias this of v2 is used assert(s1 == t1); // calls s1.opEquals(t1.s); assert(t1 == s1); // calls t1.s.opEquals(s1); assert(!(u1 < v1)); // calls u1.opCmp(v1.u); assert(!(v1 < u1)); // calls v1.u.opCmp(v1); }
Attributes are ignored for AliasThis.
Multiple AliasThis are allowed. For implicit conversions and forwarded lookups, all AliasThis declarations are attempted; if more than one AliasThis is eligible, the ambiguity is disallowed by raising an error. Note: Multiple AliasThis is currently unimplemented.
A scope class is a class with the scope attribute, as in:
scope class Foo { ... }
The scope characteristic is inherited, so any classes derived from a scope class are also scope.
A scope class reference can only appear as a function local variable. It must be declared as being scope:
scope class Foo { ... } void func() { Foo f; // error, reference to scope class must be scope scope Foo g = new Foo(); // correct }
When a scope class reference goes out of scope, the destructor (if any) for it is automatically called. This holds true even if the scope was exited via a thrown exception.
Final classes cannot be subclassed:
final class A { } class B : A { } // error, class A is final
Methods of a final class are final by default.
A nested class is a class that is declared inside the scope of a function or another class. A nested class has access to the variables and other symbols of the classes and functions it is nested inside:
class Outer { int m; class Inner { int foo() { return m; // Ok to access member of Outer } } } void func() { int m; class Inner { int foo() { return m; // Ok to access local variable m of func() } } }
If a nested class has the static attribute, then it can not access variables of the enclosing scope that are local to the stack or need a this:
class Outer { int m; static int n; static class Inner { int foo() { return m; // Error, Inner is static and m needs a this return n; // Ok, n is static } } } void func() { int m; static int n; static class Inner { int foo() { return m; // Error, Inner is static and m is local to the stack return n; // Ok, n is static } } }
Non-static nested classes work by containing an extra hidden member (called the context pointer) that is the frame pointer of the enclosing function if it is nested inside a function, or the this of the enclosing class's instance if it is nested inside a class.
When a non-static nested class is instantiated, the context pointer is assigned before the class's constructor is called, therefore the constructor has full access to the enclosing variables. A non-static nested class can only be instantiated when the necessary context pointer information is available:
class Outer { class Inner { } static class SInner { } } void func() { class Nested { } Outer o = new Outer; // Ok Outer.Inner oi = new Outer.Inner; // Error, no 'this' for Outer Outer.SInner os = new Outer.SInner; // Ok Nested n = new Nested; // Ok }
A this can be supplied to the creation of an inner class instance by prefixing it to the NewExpression:
class Outer { int a; class Inner { int foo() { return a; } } } int bar() { Outer o = new Outer; o.a = 3; Outer.Inner oi = o.new Inner; return oi.foo(); // returns 3 }
Here o supplies the this to the outer class instance of Outer.
The property .outer used in a nested class gives the this pointer to its enclosing class. If there is no enclosing class context, .outer would return a pointer to enclosing function frame with void*.
class Outer { class Inner1 { Outer getOuter() { return this.outer; } } void foo() { Inner1 i = new Inner1; assert(i.getOuter() is this); } void bar() { // x is referenced from nested scope, so // bar makes a closure envronment. int x = 1; class Inner2 { Outer getOuter() { x = 2; // The Inner2 instance owns function frame of bar // as static frame pointer, but .outer yet returns // the enclosing Outer class instance property. return this.outer; } } Inner2 i = new Inner2; assert(i.getOuter() is this); } static void baz() { // make a closure envronment int x = 1; class Inner3 { void* getOuter() { x = 2; // There's no accessible enclosing class instance, so // .outer property returns the function frame of bar. return this.outer; } } Inner3 i = new Inner3; assert(i.getOuter() !is null); } }
An anonymous nested class is both defined and instantiated with a NewAnonClassExpression:
NewAnonClassExpression: new AllocatorArgumentsopt class ClassArgumentsopt SuperClassopt Interfacesopt AggregateBody ClassArguments: ( ArgumentListopt )which is equivalent to:
class Identifier : SuperClass Interfaces AggregateBody new (ArgumentList) Identifier (ArgumentList);where Identifier is the name generated for the anonymous nested class.
If a ClassDeclaration has a const, immutable or shared storage class, then it is as if each member of the class was declared with that storage class. If a base class is const, immutable or shared, then all classes derived from it are also const, immutable or shared.